Who Belongs?

Who can lay claim to a legally-recognized Indian identity? Who decides whether or not an individual qualifies? The right to determine tribal citizenship is fundamental to tribal sovereignty, but deciding who belongs has a complicated history, especially in the South.Indians who remained in the South following removal became a marginalized and anomalous people in an emerging biracial world. Despite the economic hardships and assimilationistpressures they faced, they insisted on their political identity as citizens of tribal nations and rejected Euro-American efforts to reduce them to another racial minority, especially in the face of JimCrow segregation. Drawing upon their cultural traditions, kinship patterns, and evolving needs to protect their land, resources, and identity from outsiders, southern Indians constructed tribally-specific citizenship criteria, in part by manipulating racial categories - like blood quantum - that were not traditional elements of indigenous cultures. Mikaëla M. Adams investigates how six southern tribes-the Pamunkey Indian Tribe of Virginia, the Catawba Indian Nation of South Carolina, theMississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida-decided who belonged. By focusingon the rights and resources at stake, the effects of state and federal recognition, the influence of kinship systems and racial ideologies, and the process of creating official tribal rolls, Adams reveals how Indians established legal identities. Through examining the nineteenth and twentieth century histories of these Southern tribes, Who Belongs? quashes the notion of an essential "Indian" and showcases the constantly-evolving process of defining tribalcitizenship.

“"This is a stunning piece of scholarship on Native identity. By understanding Native communities in the South through the lenses of sovereignty and self-determination, this book upends old approaches and makes a vital contribution to our understanding of Native histories and cultures. It places their voices and experiences first, reminding us that those communities have never ceded control of their own narratives."-Clyde Ellis, author of A Dancing People: Powwow Culture on the Southern Plains "Written in clear and engaging prose, Adams provides a sweeping analysis of the politics of belonging among six indigenous nations of the American South. The research is staggering in its breadth. But the discussion of each tribe's strategy in defining citizenship is still deeply attentive to local circumstances, showing the convergent and divergent ways in which Native peoples negotiated race, religion, resources, and relationships as they defined and refined their nationhood. It is an essential read in studies of the Native South."-Angela Pulley Hudson, author of Real Native Genius: How an Ex-Slave and a White Mormon became Famous Indians "In compelling fashion, Who Belongs? reveals the complicated chemistry and history behind the contemporary struggles over tribal citizenship. Contemporary Indian tribes are free to choose their own qualifications for membership, but Adams deftly shows us how different cultural and political terrains have led Natives to choose differently. This is an important and timely book and one that will undoubtedly shape the future of tribal sovereignty."-Andrew K. Frank, author of Creeks and Southerners: Biculturalism on the Early American Frontier”

"A much-needed exploration of the complexities and stresses that Native nations face in their efforts to maintain control over citizenship and national identity within their communities...Who Belongs? is a wonderfully detailed testament to the many complexities of identity, community, territory, and cultural connectivity that constitute not just the Native nations explored in this text but also others spreadacross Indian country...It is a valuableaddition to the historiography of the Native South, to critical identity and race studies in the United States, and to the wider canon of federal Indian law and American Indian sovereignty." -- Paul McKenzie-Jones, Journal of Southern History"Adams has taken on an incredible task in chronicling the histories of six tribes from colonialism to citizenship, and readers will appreciate the legal ethnohistory of tribal citizenship practices she offers" -- Katrina Jagodinsky, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Journal of American Ethnic Hisory"Adams has authored a wonderful study of citizenship and belonging in the Native South. The book is well conceived, thoroughly researched, and lucidly written. Her arguments are clearly outlined in the introduction and cleverly tied together in the conclusion. In between she effectively illustrates how six southern tribal nations strategically acted to define and protect their identity in the twentieth century.Scholarship on southern Indians in the post-removal era is flourishing, and this book is a significant contribution to the field."--Christopher Arris Oakley, The North Carolina Historical Review"Mikaela Adams has produced a very original, well-researched, and badly needed study of citizenship and sovereignty in the modern Native American South....Her narrative is carefully crafted and the stories lively. Her usage of the available sources is comprehensive. Most important, the issues of nationhood, citizenship, and sovereignty that she grapples with swirl today in Native communities, and as more scholars begin to reevaluate Native American history ofall eras, this book will prove incredibly insightful."--Kevin Kokomoor, H-AmIndian"This is a stunning piece of scholarship on Native identity. By understanding Native communities in the South through the lenses of sovereignty and self-determination, this book upends old approaches and makes a vital contribution to our understanding of Native histories and cultures. It places their voices and experiences first, reminding us that those communities have never ceded control of their own narratives."--Clyde Ellis, author of A Dancing People:Powwow Culture on the Southern Plains"Written in clear and engaging prose, Adams provides a sweeping analysis of the politics of belonging among six indigenous nations of the American South. The research is staggering in its breadth. But the discussion of each tribe's strategy in defining citizenship is still deeply attentive to local circumstances, showing the convergent and divergent ways in which Native peoples negotiated race, religion, resources, and relationships as they defined and refinedtheir nationhood. It is an essential read in studies of the Native South."--Angela Pulley Hudson, author of Real Native Genius: How an Ex-Slave and a White Mormon became Famous Indians"In compelling fashion, Who Belongs? reveals the complicated chemistry and history behind the contemporary struggles over tribal citizenship. Contemporary Indian tribes are free to choose their own qualifications for membership, but Adams deftly shows us how different cultural and political terrains have led Natives to choose differently. This is an important and timely book and one that will undoubtedly shape the future of tribalsovereignty."--Andrew K. Frank, author of Creeks and Southerners: Biculturalism on the Early American Frontier

Mikaëla M. Adams is an assistant professor of history at the University of Mississippi.

Who can lay claim to a legally-recognized Indian identity? Who decides whether or not an individual qualifies? The right to determine tribal citizenship is fundamental to tribal sovereignty, but deciding who belongs has a complicated history, especially in the South.Indians who remained in the South following removal became a marginalized and anomalous people in an emerging biracial world. Despite the economic hardships and assimilationist pressures they faced, they insisted on their political identity as citizens of tribal nations and rejected Euro-American efforts to reduce them to another racial minority, especially in the face of Jim Crow segregation. Drawing upon their cultural traditions, kinship patterns, and evolving needs to protect their land, resources, and identity from outsiders, southern Indians constructed tribally-specific citizenship criteria, in part by manipulating racial categories - like blood quantum - that were not traditional elements of indigenous cultures. Mikaëla M. Adams investigates how six southern tribes-the Pamunkey Indian Tribe of Virginia, the Catawba Indian Nation of South Carolina, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida-decided who belonged. By focusing on the rights and resources at stake, the effects of state and federal recognition, the influence of kinship systems and racial ideologies, and the process of creating official tribal rolls, Adams reveals how Indians established legal identities. Through examining the nineteenth and twentieth century histories of these Southern tribes, Who Belongs? quashes the notion of an essential "Indian" and showcases the constantly-evolving process of defining tribal citizenship.

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